History of the architecture discipline at PKU

Peking University Architecture shapes contemporary Chinese architectural education with its dynamic and highly creative image. Peking University's connection to architecture is profound and intricate, deserving a prominent place in China's architectural history. The path of learning has long been obscured, yet remembering the past serves as a guide for the future. Thus, we unearth forgotten insights, carry forward the legacy of our predecessors, and perpetuate the traditions and ideals of architectural scholarship at Peking University. Within the macro-historical perspective of “Chinese Architecture,” we build from a lofty vantage point, achieving the discipline's breadth and depth.

1. The Imperial University of Peking Introduces “Architecture” as a Discipline Through Its Charter

In 1898, during the Hundred Days' Reform, Emperor Guangxu formally decreed the establishment of the Imperial University of Peking, aiming to promote modern education. This institution served not only as the nation's highest seat of learning but also as the supreme administrative body for education. After the Hundred Days' Reform, the Imperial University of Peking was one of the few surviving institutions, struggling to maintain operations. Unexpectedly, it suffered devastating blows during the Boxer Rebellion: first plundered by bandits, then occupied as barracks by German and Russian troops. Students scattered, and books and instruments vanished without a trace. Following the Boxer Rebellion, through the efforts of Zhang Baixi and others, the Imperial University was reestablished in the 28th year of the Guangxu reign. Zhang Baixi was appointed Minister of Education, and the Imperial College of Languages was merged into the Imperial University. That same year, following an imperial edict from the two Empress Dowagers, Zhang Baixi “carefully traced ancient systems and referenced foreign nations” to draft the Regulations for the Imperial University of Peking and Higher, Secondary, and Elementary Schools in the Provinces. Approved and promulgated by the court, this became China's first systematic document on practical education—the Imperially Approved Regulations for Schools, known as the “Renyin Education System.” The following year, Zhang Baixi, Rong Qing, and Zhang Zhidong revised the regulations. The new version, known as the “Imperially Approved Regulations for Academies” or the “Gimau Academic System,” contained detailed provisions for architecture curricula. These curricula are believed to have been based on the syllabus of the Architecture Department (renamed the Department of Architecture in 1897) at the Tokyo Imperial University, which had been established when the Japanese Ministry of Engineering University was reorganized in 1887. The introduction of the architectural curriculum system and the term “architecture” into China was clearly influenced by Japan. Modern China thus began the arduous process of transplanting foreign disciplines, marking Peking University's first encounter with architecture. However, due to a severe shortage of specialized talent domestically, it took over two decades for a relatively formal architecture discipline to emerge in China.

Undoubtedly, the devastating defeats of the First Sino-Japanese War and the Boxer Rebellion inflicted indelible trauma upon the Chinese people, spurring them to pursue reforms. Western-style architecture, with its scientific and hygienic attributes, became a symbol of progress and civilization—implicitly casting traditional Chinese architecture as backward and barbaric. By the early 20th century, nearly all commercial buildings rebuilt in Beijing's Qianmen district adopted Western styles. Zhang Fuhe termed this aesthetic “Western-style architecture.”⁷ Constructed by local craftsmen, these buildings largely retained traditional structural techniques and aesthetic concepts, incorporating indigenous patterns and decorations. Yet they partially adopted Western architectural elements and methods—such as arched doors and windows, classical column orders, and the like. Westernization had become a prevailing trend pursued by society at large. In 1893, the interior and exterior decoration of the Qingyan Pavilion at the Summer Palace underwent Western-style treatment. By 1904, the Haiyantang complex was completed in the imperial gardens of the Forbidden City. The construction drawings for these buildings were still executed by the imperial “architects” of the Qing Dynasty, the Yangsili family. The architectural eclecticism embodied the ideal and persistence of “Chinese essence with Western utility.” While Western architects were indeed active in China, the vast majority of construction projects were still realized by the indigenous team of craftsmen.

2. The “Western-Style Architecture” of the Imperial University of Peking and Architect Zhang Yixu's New Methods of Architecture

The Imperial University of Peking was established on the site of the Ma Shen Temple and the former residence of Princess Jia, east of Jingshan Hill. This location later became the Second Campus of the old Peking University, where Western-style buildings were added. The existing structures include the Sishan Hall, a single-story building blending Chinese and Western styles, and the Library Building, a two-story structure with verandas on all four sides. Additionally, a group of two-story Western-style buildings was constructed along Beihaiyan (originally the Translation Institute, later the Third Campus of the old Peking University). The university's architectural efforts toward Westernization clearly reflected its commitment to establishing a modern educational system. Particularly noteworthy is the allocation in October 1905 of land measuring 480 zhang east-west and 440 zhang north-south at the former drill ground outside Beijing's Deshengmen Gate for constructing the “Faculty of Engineering.” A dedicated Engineering Office was established to oversee construction, with Zhang Yixu, He Jusi, Yan De, Fan Yuanlian, and Chen Jiahui responsible for planning. Among them, Zhang Yingxu, courtesy name Zhizhong, hailed from Tianjin, Zhili Province. He holds pioneering significance in China's modern architectural history. Zhang enrolled in the Beiyang Naval Academy in the summer of 1893. He traveled to Japan for studies in the spring of 1899 and obtained a diploma in mechanical engineering from the Tokyo Imperial University in 1902. That winter, he returned to China to serve as Chief Engineer of the Pingjiang Gold Mine Bureau. In the summer of 1904, he served as Chief Administrator and Instructor at the Baoding Normal School. In 1905, after passing the imperial palace examination, he was appointed as a Chief Clerk in the Ministry of Commerce. He supervised engineering projects in Beijing, Baoding, and other locations, and also held teaching positions at the Intermediate and Advanced Industrial Schools under the Ministry of Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry, as well as serving as Supervisor of the Zhili Normal School. It is said that during his studies in Japan, he had briefly engaged in the study of architecture. In 1910, he taught architecture at the Higher Industrial School under the Ministry of Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry, completing his book New Methods of Architecture in July. This work is currently recognized as the earliest known modern architectural treatise authored by a Chinese scholar. Lai Delin asserts: He (Zhang Yixu) is the first known figure to introduce the new discipline of ‘architecture’—its name, conceptual framework, and practical application principles—into Chinese university education. Crucially, New Methods of Architecture introduced a modern design methodology grounded in functional requirements and structural construction."

In 1910, the University Hall commenced operations as a specialized university. However, the outbreak of the Xinhai Revolution in the winter of 1911 led to “educational funds being diverted to military expenses, effectively suspending university operations.” After the abdication of the Qing emperor, Peking University, situated beside the Forbidden City, fell into further disuse. Only through President Yan Fu's vigorous advocacy that the university must not cease operations was the situation reversed. The completed lecture halls of the Faculty of Science¹¹ and Faculty of Arts within the University Divisions were soon sold off and repurposed for military use.

3. The History of the Department of Architecture at Peking University's College of Engineering

In the summer of 1928, the Department of Architecture was established within the College of Arts at Beiping University, serving as the precursor to Peking University's Department of Architecture. The department head was Wang Shen, with lecturers including Hua Nangui. Professors Wang and Hua, both educated in France, advocated for the Chinese model of placing architecture departments within art colleges, similar to France. However, “as the art college environment leaned too heavily toward the arts, it was unsuitable for the Chinese context,” leading to the department's eventual separation and transfer to the College of Engineering at Beiping University. Shen Liyuan joined the Faculty of Engineering in 1930 and served as department chair in 1931 and 1934, teaching architectural design and architectural drawing. At that time, Wang Shen, Hua Nangui, Yue Jiazao, Lin Shizhen, and Zhu Zhaoxue were all faculty members in the Faculty of Engineering.

As early as 1920, Professor Shen Liyuan conducted surveys of Hu Xueyan's former residence, providing crucial documentation for its later restoration and reconstruction. This effort predated the large-scale architectural surveys undertaken by the Society for the Study of Chinese Architecture in 1920. Subsequently, he organized students and faculty from Peking University's College of Engineering to survey the Forbidden City, leaving behind invaluable records. These initiatives demonstrate remarkable foresight.

Professor Yue Jiazhao of the Architecture Department authored the first history of Chinese architecture written by a Chinese scholar. Though criticized by the eminent architectural historian Liang Sicheng, we are fortunate to have access to this work today. As a fighter for national self-strengthening, Mr. Le, after encountering Western architecture, deeply sensed the danger of China's architectural traditions continuing to be relegated to mere craftsmanship and falling into neglect. He therefore “paid close attention to the gains and losses of (Chinese) architecture,” determined to organize and promote China's architectural culture. To complete this work, Mr. Le expended considerable resources gathering materials and personally conducted field investigations of buildings. After extensive preparatory work, he revised the manuscript six times before its final completion. At that time, Liang Sicheng, then a professor at Peking University, read this book with great enthusiasm. Having received scientific training, he naturally could not be satisfied with such a “notebook”-style work. A dispassionate view reveals that Mr. Le actually possessed a unique perspective on architectural history. He did not believe the most prominent feature of China's millennia-long architectural history lay in structural evolution or regression. Viewed through the lens of history and culture, the spirit behind architecture was more fundamental than the physical structures themselves. These views were easily attacked in the context of the widespread promotion of science throughout society at the time. Today, we should precisely draw upon Mr. Le's resources to reflect on this point. The 1930s marked a period of stable development and accumulation for China. With the consolidation of the Nationalist government's rule, Peking University entered a phase of large-scale construction and expansion. During this time, Liang Sicheng's designs for the Peking University Geological Museum (1934) and Women's Dormitory (1935) were clearly influenced by modernism, characterized by simplicity, functionality, and an emphasis on material expression. While Nanjing led the “traditional revival” architectural trend, his practice represented another branch of modern Chinese architecture.

Unfortunately, the outbreak of the War of Resistance against Japan and the fall of Beijing forced Peking University, along with Tsinghua and Nankai, to relocate and form the Southwest Associated University. In 1938, Peking University's College of Engineering resumed admissions in Beijing. Civil engineer Zhu Zhaoxue served as head of the Department of Architectural Engineering, with Shen Liyuan, Zhong Sen, and Zhao Dongri continuing their teaching roles. After the war's end in 1945, it became the College of Engineering at the Beijing Temporary University. In 1946, Beiyang University took over operations, renaming it the Beiyang University Beiping Division. It reverted to Peking University's College of Engineering in 1947.

After the founding of the People's Republic, professors Zhu Zhaoxue, Zhao Dongri, and Hua Nangui from the Engineering College were invited to collaborate with Liang Sicheng, Chen Zhanxiang, and Soviet experts on the capital's urban planning. Zhu, Zhao, and Hua advocated locating the administrative center within the historic city walls, while Liang and Chen insisted on establishing a new city to the west. This debate remains a fascinating topic to this day. During the 1952 university restructuring, Peking University's Department of Architecture was merged into Tsinghua University. Notable scholars trained in Peking University's architecture program include Feng Jiankui, Yu Zhuoyun, Du Xianzhou, Zang Erzong, Qi Yingtao, and Wang Weiyu, who made outstanding contributions to China's architectural field, particularly in the preservation and research of ancient architecture. It is heartening that, nearly half a century later, Peking University has reopened its architecture program. The establishment of the Peking University Architecture Research Center signifies the university's renewed engagement in contemporary Chinese architectural discourse.

4. The Eastward Transmission of Western Learning and Architectural Traditions of East and West

Architecture began as an imported discipline. Through the efforts of three or four generations of Chinese scholars, a framework for Chinese architectural studies has been established. It can be said that traditionally, architecture held no status in China—a significant difference from the West. Though our predecessors built this framework, we must still trace its origins, understand their struggles, and appreciate their creativity. What Peking University's architecture program brings is not merely elevated design standards, but also a critical reexamination and reassessment of history—the very key to elevating Chinese architectural research on the global stage. In ancient Egypt, the Grand Vizier Imhotep, who oversaw construction, was revered as a deity. In Greece, Phidias achieved near-divine status through his construction of the Acropolis. Plato's concept of God as a craftsman who brought order out of chaos resonates here. Christianity adopted this concept, making God the architect of the world. Aristotle elevated vision to a metaphysical status in his Metaphysics, while relegating touch to a symbol of desire and materiality. These ideas profoundly influenced Western architecture. Whenever Western philosophy underwent shifts, these metaphysical concepts were immediately embodied in the tangible form of architecture, granting architects enduring prestige as interpreters of such transformations.

In truth, ancient Chinese architects also held revered status, becoming pivotal figures in early state structures. The earliest architects, Yu the Great and his son, served as Sikuang—the ancient Chinese officials overseeing architecture and city fortifications. Perplexingly, the text “Zhouli: Dongguan: Sikuang” was later lost, coinciding with architects' demotion to mere craftsmen and architectural techniques being relegated to the lowly category of “odd skills and frivolous arts.” Given this historical trajectory, it is hardly surprising that modern architecture had to be imported from abroad. Examining the transformations within this research and the subsequent shifts in subsequent eras lays the groundwork for comparative studies between China and the West. This concerns the very meaning of architecture and the architect's existence within our civilization.

Notes:

1. The Imperial University of Peking had been in the works for some time. Support from the conservative faction led by Empress Dowager Cixi allowed it to “survive due to its early inception,” overcoming initial obstacles. In 1896, Minister of Justice Li Duan submitted the “Memorandum on Expanding Schools,” first proposing the establishment of the “Imperial University of Peking,” traditionally attributed to Liang Qichao. See Jin Yilin, Research on Modern Chinese Universities, p. 19.

2. In 1900, Xu Jingcheng, the newly appointed Superintendent of the Imperial University of Peking, was executed for opposing the Boxer Rebellion, leading to the school's closure for two years. See Zhou Cezong, The May Fourth Movement: The Intellectual Revolution of Modern China, 1999, p. 48.

3. Established in 1862, it was China's first modern school dedicated to training foreign language specialists.

4. Japan renamed its “House-Building Department” to “Architecture Department” under the advocacy of renowned architect Chūta Itō. See Xu Subin, Comparative, Interactive, and Insightful: A Study of Modern Architectural History in China and Japan, Tianjin University doctoral dissertation, 1991: 6

5. See Lai Delin, 2007, Research on the History of Modern Chinese Architecture, p. 116. Also see Sha Yongjie, 2001, The Process of “Westernization”: A Comparative Study of Architectural Modernization in China and Japan.

6. China's earliest systematic, large-scale, and long-running architecture department was the Architecture Department of the Jiangsu Provincial Suzhou Industrial College, established in 1923.

7. See Zhang Hefu, 2004, History of Modern Architecture in Beijing, pp. 2, 15, etc.

8. That is, undergraduate programs. The Imperial University of Peking began enrolling undergraduates in 1910, but no undergraduate graduates existed before the Xinhai Revolution.

9. For details, see Lai Delin, “China's First Monograph on Architecture: New Methods of Architecture and Its Author Zhang Yixu,” in Studies in the History of Modern Chinese Architecture.

10. See the cited work, p. 129.

11. Confucianism formed the ideological foundation of China's feudal empire. In late Qing new-style schools, classical studies held a prominent position, warranting a dedicated department. After the Xinhai Revolution, the principle of academic equality was promoted, and classical studies were no longer singled out for special emphasis.

12. Under the Nationalist government's university district system, the architecture department was initially housed within the College of Arts under Dean Xu Beihong. Later,

it was transferred to the College of Engineering with Shen Liyuan as department chair.

13. Wang Shen (1895–?), former director of the Beijing Municipal Public Works Bureau and member of the Chinese Architectural Society, graduated from the École Spéciale d'Architecture in Paris. He designed the Sound Cinema Theatre in 1935.

14. Hua Nangui (1875–1961), a native of Wuxi, Jiangsu, passed the provincial examination in 1896 and studied at the Normal Department of the Imperial University of Peking. He graduated from the École Spéciale d'Ingénieurs in France in 1911 (as a government-sponsored student) with an engineering diploma and was a member of the Chinese Architectural Society.

15. Interview transcript with Huang Tingjue, first graduate of the Architecture Department at the Academy of Arts, published in Xu Subin, 1991, Comparative, Interactive, and Enlightening: Research on Modern and Contemporary Architectural History in China and Japan.

16. For Shen Liyuan, see Gu Fang and Shen Zhen Sen, Architectural Creation Philosophy of Shen Liyuan, China's First Generation Architect, published in Architectural Creation, September 2006 issue.

17. Lin Shizhen (1893–), studied under Lin Shu, graduated from the Architecture Department of Tokyo Higher Technical School in Japan. Member of the Chinese Architectural Society.

18. Zhu Zhaoxue (1900–1965), native of Changshu, Jiangsu Province, attended Aurora University, studied abroad in France and Belgium.

19. Chinese Architectural Society, discussed in detail later.

20. See Le Jiazao, Introduction to History of Chinese Architecture. Also see Cui Yong, “Le Jiazao and His First Chinese History of Architecture,” in Research on the Chinese Institute of Architecture, pp. 153–159.

21. From 1932 to 1933, Liang taught History of Chinese Architecture at Peking University.

22. At the time, he was a professor in the Department of Architecture at Peking University.

23. The university resumed operations in the enemy-occupied zone as the puppet Peking University. After the victory in the War of Resistance in 1945, it was renamed the Engineering College of the Provisional University of Beijing. In 1946, it was taken over by Beiyang University and renamed the Beiyang University Beiping Branch. In 1947, it was again renamed the Engineering College of Peking University.